Who Else Wants to Learn About Essay Topics Grade 9?

Who Else Wants to Learn About Essay Topics Grade 9? The web has opened doors to a wide selection of opportunities associated with various kinds of services. You are able to definitely hunt for some information online, but you can discover such experience very confusing. Don't neglect to confirm the access to resources the topics that you consider. Many of the rewriting teams of different businesses take the order from clients and look for an inexpensive writers, who might not have the very good knowledge on English. The Tried and True Method for Essay Topics Grade 9 in Step by Step Detail As a discipline, writing requires a great deal of practice, particularly in the essential stages like 5th grade. The Thelen philosophy is to stay Small enough to know our clients and big enough to care for their demands. Remember your final grade significantly is based on the topic. So the overall grade for the paper might differ based on that. To compose a strong argumentative essay, stu dents should start by familiarizing themselves with a number of the common, and frequently conflicting, positions on the research topic so they can write an educated paper. At times it only appears simple, but a great deal of students forget about the kind of academic writing they need to follow. Knowing that there are lots of writers out there with years of experience, you need to set up your mind accordingly. Very often it becomes tough to choose 1 topic either on account of the many ideas in the student's head, or due to their complete absence. The very first thing you must realize searching for an ideal topic is that your opinion is the thing that matters the most. When you're picking your topic, bear in mind that it's much simpler to write about something which you currently have interest ineven in case you don't know a good deal about it. Contribute your suggestions and people are certain to read! When you're permitted to write about whatever you want, never rely on somebody's thoughts about this issue you like as a pivotal criterion for your choice. Deciding on a topic is an essential issue that partly estimates final success of the job. Finding the subject of your interest will allow you to work harder on your project and show your style in the easiest way possible. Most Noticeable Essay Topics Grade 9 In choosing your topic, it's frequently a good concept to start with a subject which you already have some familiarity with. Actually, a short and easy introduction is jam-packed with information since its principal goal would be brevity. Undoubtedly, it would be easier that you learn more about the topic that's connected to the area of your interest. For this reason, you've got to come across enough substantial evidence for the specific topic. What's Really Happening with Essay Topics Grade 9 Don't begin w riting your essay with the start or ending, the most significant part is the middle one. Most students have a tendency to choose easy essay topics by talking about themselves, doing their very best to express their special qualities and trying to stick out from the remainder of the pack. 2 minutes is longer than you believe! Understanding how to compose a strong argumentative paper will help you advance your very own argumentative thinking. The essay writer, assigned for you, will earn a research of your private writing and imitate that vocabulary and fashion. The main purpose of topic choice for a proposal essay is to demonstrate the idea can be put into place in practice. To lessen stress whilst writing a research paper, you ought to be certain to have chosen the best topic. Finding the Best Essay Topics Grade 9 Like the death penalty, the thought of marijuana legality was debated and discussed for decades. You should have your reasons, and our primary concern is that you wind up getting an excellent grade. If it's possible to write a really convincing piece on a real-world application utilizing unique facts and research, then your opportunities receiving admission to a top level university will certainly grow! If you still have issues with topic selection, don't hesitate to request help at Gra deMiners. The Advantages of Essay Topics Grade 9 The option of compare and contrast essay topics isn't a simple task because you should clearly show your analytical skills. Take notes concerning all possible topics you may consider. There are an infinite number of ways to start an essay effectively. So without further ado, below are some effective writing tips to create your common app essay stick out! Odds are, all you have to do is relax and locate a topic you're passionate about and, naturally, one that's debatable. You don't need to find super technical with legal argumentative essays, but be certain to do your homework on what the present laws about your favorite topic actually say. Following are some basic strategies to direct you in deciding on the ideal persuasive essay topic for you. Thus, the topic you select plays a crucial role.

Ways of Viewing Animal Farm Historical Allegory, Fable,...

Animal farm tells the story of a group of animals rebelling successfully against the previous owner, Mr Jones, who was considered to be a tyrant of animal/manor farm. The farm was planned to be communist place but because of most of the animals gullibility and unintelligence the pigs who where smarter took control and made a hierarchy and exploited the animals. Then eventually the pigs became more like humans doing things like walking on two legs and wearing cloths. However would animal farm be more interesting as a historical allegory of a simple fable? For this story to work the writer, George Orwell, asks us to suspend our beliefs and imagine that animals can talk, have and show human characteristics and emotions. Also we are told†¦show more content†¦The Russian revolution is shown in the book to be the expulsion of Mr Jones, the civil war as the battle of the cowshed, Stalin begins a dictatorship shown to be the building of the windmill and Trotsky getting exiled as the elected leader snowball being chased and barred from the farm. These all show that Animal Farm is a symbolic story and has most of the main events of the revolution shown in the book. Even the characters in the book shown the qualities and dreams of people involved in the Russian Revolution with Leo Trotsky having the same intensions and attitudes as Snowball, Joseph Stalin only cared for power like Napoleon and Squealer having a big mouth talking a lot and manipulates and commands like Pravda, the Russian Newspaper in 1930s, and tells us the animals in the book were symbols for the people in the Russian Revolution. Animal Farm would be much less interesting without it being an allegory as you would lose all the historical content in the book like the similar events in Animal Farm when compared to the Russian Revolution. Furthermore there would be no connection between the characters like Snowball and Trotsky as a result of having no allegory Animal Farm would make it less advanced and les interesting. I think animal farm is more interesting as a historical allegory because of amount of similarity to the Russian Revolution to do with the characters and plot of Animal Farm. Animal Farm is much longer than a fable with

Evaluation Of Hand Hygiene Compliance Free Solution

Question: You are the Nurse Unit Manager on a hospital medical ward. The infection control team recently identified low hand hygiene compliance (20%) of your staff. You need to put in place measures to increase hand hygiene compliance on your ward. Discuss what evidence based measures you would put in place to improve hand hygiene compliance. Answer: Introduction Now days it has been seen that infections are spreading at a considerable rate through low hand hygiene compliance among the staff members of a hospital. According to Azim McLaws (2014) one of the most important methods of preventing the increase of pathogens that includes viruses and bacteria in a hospital medical ward can be through maintaining hand hygiene. So, it has no become a major issue among the unit managers of a hospital in increasing the hand hygiene compliances among the staff members of the ward. Boyce (1999) commented on the fact that hand hygiene is essential in the medical ward for keeping the patients safe from infections and thereby it reduces the chances of infections. Moreover, hand hygiene is essential in order to prevent the further spread of hand spread diseases among the patients that are coming due to low hand hygiene factors. 1) Clinical Questions that are answerable with research evidence Despite the modern development in the healthcare systems, the patients are still staying vulnerable towards the inadvertent harm in the hospitals. It is seen that nearly 20% of the staff members in the hospital medical ward are identified to have low hand hygiene conformity by the infection control team. Dunton DeVita (2012) had a view that this is one of the major factors that increase the chances of spreading the infectious diseases among the patients. It is to be remembered that the patients arrive at the hospital in order to cure themselves from the persisting diseases rather than getting themselves more infected by other diseases that are caused through unhygienic practice maintained by the staff members. Kumar et al. (2014) commented that the nurses who come in close contact with the patients get their hands contaminated in the due course of routine care of the patients. Contamination of hands occur due to coming in contact with the materials and contaminated surfaces at the t ime of changing the dresses of the patients, checkups and at the time of giving medicines. In addition to this, Peters (2010) opinioned that at the time of helping out the patients at the time of their visits in bathroom or inserting the catheter in the urinary system and later not washing the hands properly is another cause of contamination of hands. So, in order to give the patients the right amount of care and hygiene in the hospital and not making them infected with others diseases, requirement of hand hygiene is essential within the hospital environment. In addition to this, Dunton DeVita (2012) commented that based on PIO, practitioners facilitate evidence based practice. PIO is the acronym of Population Intervention Outcome. The population signifies the patients and their characteristics of diseases. The Intervention refers to the influence of diseases on other Patients and staff members if not the staff has washed their hands. According to Azim McLaws (2014) the Outcome of this can that microbes will spread from the infected patients to other patients that may cause harmful results and even death of the patients. On the other hand, PICO is same that of PIO but the C signifies comparison component that is needed as an alternative of the diseases. In addition to this, Sakihama et al. (2014) commented that hand hygiene reduces the spread of infections to nearly 75%. It is statistically measured that nearly 4-5 millions of patients die every year due to low hand hygiene among the staff members. Singh Joy (2010) also had an opinion that in the initial development of the hospital facilities, maintenance of hand hygiene is one of the initial factor that need to be taken care of among the patients. This is mainly done to secure the patients from the contaminated diseases and also to maintain the hygiene factor among the hospital environment. There are some questions asked to staff members that are answerable with research evidence are given below: a) How often do you wash your hand daily in clinics? b) How far are you concerned about maintaining cleanliness in clinics? c) To what extent you know that microbes are spread through low hygiene? 2. Searching for as well as collecting evidences addressing the questions According to Simon Costers (2011) the pathogens are the viruses and bacteria that are spread through low hand hygiene compliances of the medical ward of the hospital through the staff members. The areas that are around the perineum and other areas such as trunk, hand and armpits are loaded with microbes and touching those areas and then not washing hands properly may cause transmit of diseases from one place to another. Girard et al. (2002) commented on the fact that the types of microbes are- Klebsiella, Candida, Norovirus, Rotavirus, Hepatitis A virus, Adenovirus, Enterobacter etc. are spread on the hands of the staff members of health care unit. Moreover, diseases such as chronic dermatitis, chronic renal failure, and diabetes also cause microbes that are also spread through low hand hygiene factor. Lee (2014) had a view that even after taking the pulse, temperature, touching the hands, shoulder of the patients and also by taking readings of blood pressure makes the hands of the staff members and nurses contaminated. Patient gowns, bedside furniture, bed lines etc if not properly washed using disinfectants can also spread microbes through the hands of the nurses and other health care staff members. Mumford et al. (2014) had an opinion that the pathogenic organism that transmits the pathogens through hands is present on the skin of the infected patients and are transferred through the hands of the nurses and healthcare workers. Inadequate cleaning of the hands or not cleaning at all and touching the other patients also spread the microbes from one patient to the other. Ataei et al. (2013) had a view that this thereby makes the environment of the hospital full of microbes and the patients become susceptible towards other chronic diseases. 3) Appraising and synthesizing evidence According to Berger Glenn (2012) the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or CDC has a review regarding the maintenance of hand hygiene among the staff members of a hospital in order to maintain the hygiene factors among the hospital environment and patients. The health care workers and the nurses get their hands contaminated by using two types of pathogens such as transient or contaminating and resident or colonized micro-organisms. So, Budimir-Hussey et al. (2013) had a vision that the nurses or healthcare units should not wear any kind of jewellery, rings or watches that can lead to colonization of bacteria underneath the skin that causes the spread of contaminated diseases. According to CDC guidelines, hand drying is equally important similar to drying of hands since the micro-organisms tend to thrive in a moist atmosphere. Azim McLaws (2014) had a view that according to the guidelines of CDC, the medical staff members need to adopt procedures for hand hygiene such as usi ng antiseptics, alcohols, antibacterial soaps at the time of touching each of the patient or after seeing and touching the contaminated patients. Birnbach (2012) commented on the fact that the surgical instruments also need to be washed properly after the operations done and also before doing the operation. Proper usage of gloves, gowns also need to be treated and disinfected before and after the patients are operated or given medicines and fitting medical equipments into the body of the patients. Hintikka, Kainulainen Anttila (2010) had an opinion that the guidelines of CDC have clearly mentioned that the health care unit staff members need to wash their hand before touching a patient, before a procedure and after the procedure that exposes the body fluid and can cause infection. In addition to this, even after touching the patient and after touching the surroundings of the patients, the health care units that includes the staffs and nurse need to wash hands properly using disinfectants in order to prevent the spread of contaminated diseases (Kouni et al. 2014). 4) Evidence based measures along with patient preferences and local context According to Pittet (2000) the medical sciences are getting advanced day to day with the introduction of modern technology, medicines and modern medical devices. But along with the advancement of medical science, the issues and diseases that are caused with the low hand hygiene is also increasing in a fast pace. So, in order to prevent the spread of contaminated diseases through hands, the hygiene factor needs to be improved in a considerable rate for maintaining the hygiene within the medical wards and hospital. Stewardson, Russo Grayson (2014) had an opinion that the promotion of hand hygiene within the hospital and among the medical staff members is not less than 150 years. This is done in order to use hygienic methods for prevention of contaminated diseases among the patients through the hands of the medical staff members. Kumar et al. (2014) commented on the fact that previously the rate of infection that was caused due to low hand hygiene was high; 1 patient out of 5 patients get infected through it. This was caused due to less usage of disinfectants and sanitation and thereby caused spread of infection among the patients. But due to the promotional activities such as information leaflets, lectures, automated dispensers and workshops also help in improving the mentality of the medical workers and thereby this resulted in the improvement of usage of antiseptics for cleaning the hands. According to Dunton DeVita (2012) these promotional activities also help in making the health care staff members to understand the utility and importance of usage of antiseptics, antibacterial soaps and usage keeping their hands clean for preventing the spread of infectious diseases. It has been statically measured that now day the ratio of deaths regarding the spread of contaminated diseases has reduced to an extent bu t still has not reduced completely. Still, 20% of the staff members are not using proper disinfectants and that is causing the spread of the microbes among the other patients (Gillen, 2015). 5) Effectiveness regarding the intervention and decision With the increase in consciousness regarding the requirement of hand hygiene necessity, the health care staff members that include nurses, doctors and other workforce members need to use proper substances for the purpose of hand hygiene. According to Azim McLaws (2014) the substances that are essential for the purpose of cleaning the hands and making it disinfectant are- soaps and detergents, antibacterial soaps, hand sanitizers, ash and mud. Using these substances, the micro-organisms that causes the spread of contaminated diseases are killed thereby making the patients free from the other infectious diseases. Birnbach (2012) commented on the fact that usage of alcohol based hand rubs, the microbes automatically gets removed that result in reducing the spread of microbes among the patients. In addition to this, the usage of disinfectant medical gloves and gowns also help in reducing the ill effects of the contaminated diseases and their spread. Conclusion Throughout this literature review, it is seen that there are several ill-effects of the infectious diseases that are spread through low hand hygiene among the staff members of the medical ward. It is therefore essential to use hand hygiene by washing hands with disinfectants and thereby drying them for the future purpose. The gloves and gowns along with other medical equipments also need to be disinfected and cleaned before their usage for operating or curing or testing the patients. In addition to this, the CDC guidelines are also discussed regarding the necessity and requirement of hand hygiene. Moreover the evidence based measures that are adopted for increasing the consciousness regarding hand hygiene is also discussed vividly. References Ataei, B., Zahraei, S., Pezeshki, Z., Babak, A., Nokhodian, Z., Mobasherizadeh, S., Hoseini, S. (2013). Baseline evaluation of hand hygiene compliance inthree major hospitals, Isfahan, Iran. Journal Of Hospital Infection, 85(1), 69-72. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2013.07.001 Azim, S., McLaws, M. (2014). Doctor, do you have a moment? National Hand Hygiene Initiative compliance in Australian hospitals. The Medical Journal Of Australia, 200(9), 534-537. doi:10.5694/mja13.11203 Azim, S., McLaws, M. (2014). Doctor, do you have a moment? National Hand Hygiene Initiative compliance in Australian hospitals. The Medical Journal Of Australia, 200(9), 534-537. doi:10.5694/mja13.11203 Berger, B., Glenn, L. (2012). Multidisciplinary hand hygiene factors in hospitals. American Journal Of Infection Control, 40(7), 682. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2012.05.006 Birnbach, D. (2012). Hand hygiene compliance by visitors to hospitalswe can do better.  Response to letter titled Hand hygiene compliance by visitors to hospitalscan we do better? . American Journal Of Infection Control, 40(9), 900. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2012.07.009 Boyce, J. (1999). It Is Time for Action: Improving Hand Hygiene in Hospitals. Annals Of Internal Medicine, 130(2), 153. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-130-2-199901190-00011 Budimir-Hussey, M., Ciprietti, L., Ahmed, F., Tarola, C., Lo, A., El-Masri, M. (2013). Exploring Physician Hand Hygiene Practices and Perceptions in 2 Community-Based Canadian Hospitals. Journal Of Patient Safety, 9(3), 140-144. doi:10.1097/pts.0b013e318283f56d Dunton, D., DeVita, S. (2012). State Public Health Department Performs External Observations of Hand Hygiene Compliance in All Maine Acute Care Hospitals, 2011. American Journal Of Infection Control, 40(5), e159-e160. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2012.04.282 Girard, R., Aho, L., Goetz, M., Labadie, J., Lejeune, B. (2002). Alcohol-based hand gels and hand hygiene in hospitals. The Lancet, 360(9344), 1510-1511. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(02)11444-9 Hintikka, A., Kainulainen, K., Anttila, V. (2010). Two reality TV series reveal the reality of hand hygiene compliance in two Finnish hospitals. Journal Of Hospital Infection, 76, S46. doi:10.1016/s0195-6701(10)60155-7 Kouni, S., Kourlaba, G., Mougkou, K., Maroudi, S., Chavela, B., Nteli, C. et al. (2014). Assessment of Hand Hygiene Resources and Practices at the 2 Childrens Hospitals in Greece. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 33(10), e247-e251. doi:10.1097/inf.0000000000000376 Kumar, P., Gupta, S., Kapil, A., Vij, A., Singh, I. (2014). A Comparative Study of Hand Hygiene Practices in Operation Theaters in Tertiary Level Hospitals in Delhi, India. JRFHHA, 2, 87-93. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10035-1021 Lee, A. (2014). Hand hygiene and bacteraemia rates in Australian hospitals. Australian And New Zealand Journal Of Public Health, 38(1), 87-87. doi:10.1111/1753-6405.12160 Mumford, V., Greenfield, D., Hogden, A., Debono, D., Gospodarevskaya, E., Forde, K. et al. (2014). Disentangling quality and safety indicator data: a longitudinal, comparative study of hand hygiene compliance and accreditation outcomes in 96 Australian hospitals. BMJ Open, 4(9), e005284-e005284. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005284 Peters, J. (2010). Insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of measures to prevent occupational irritant hand dermatitis. Evidence-Based Nursing, 14(1), 21-22. doi:10.1136/ebn.14.1.21 Pittet, D. (2000). Improving Compliance With Hand Hygiene in Hospitals . Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 21(6), 381-386. doi:10.1086/501777 Sakihama, T., Honda, H., Saint, S., Fowler, K., Shimizu, T., Kamiya, T. et al. (2014). Hand Hygiene Adherence Among Health Care Workers at Japanese Hospitals. Journal Of Patient Safety, 1. doi:10.1097/pts.0000000000000108 Simon, A., Costers, M. (2011). Impact of three multimodal countrywide campaigns to promote hand hygiene in Belgian hospitals. BMC Proceedings, 5(Suppl 6), O63. doi:10.1186/1753-6561-5-s6-o63 Singh Joy, S. (2010). Hand Hygiene in Hospitals. AJN, American Journal Of Nursing, 110(7), 66-67. doi:10.1097/01.naj.0000383941.60838.20 Stewardson, A., Russo, P., Grayson, M. (2014). Doctor, do you have a moment? National Hand Hygiene Initiative compliance in Australian hospitals. The Medical Journal Of Australia, 201(5), 264-265. doi:10.5694/mja14.00718 Gillen, S. (2015). More nurses getting dermatitis as a result of hand hygiene campaigns.Nursing Standard,29(24), 0-0. doi:10.7748/ns.29.24.0.2924990

The Great Gatsby and the Fall of The American Dream free essay sample

A analysis, from todays viewpoint, of the classical American novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald from the perspective of the corrupt American Dream.This paper describes The Great Gatsby as Fitzgeralds signature novel of the American dream gone awry. It compares American society in the 1920s to American today. The author writes that immigrants, like Gatsby, come to escape their own problems for our empty promises of unlimited advancement. On the surface, The Great Gatsby is a novel about confused and unhappy relationships that drank and socialized their way through the 1920s. Yet, when investigating further, it speaks of the bankrupt American Dream, which no longer stands for progress and hard work, as it has become materialistic and corrupt.For years immigrants poured into Ellis Island looking for freedom of religious persecution, to escape poverty and hunger and numerous other reasons. Today over 50,000 immigrants come to the shores of America clutching Green Cards hoping for a piece of the American Dream. We will write a custom essay sample on The Great Gatsby and the Fall of The American Dream or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is in this setting, that F. Scott Fitzgerald portrays The Great Gatsby. Jay Gatsby, himself, the title character, was a major culprit of this corruption. Nick Carraway surmises that Gatsby made his wealth from bootlegging and involvement with organized crime. Gatsby has focused his adult life to being wealthy enough and having enough to impress Daisy.

Oprah Winfrey is a leader essays

Oprah Winfrey is a leader essays Oprah Winfrey is undoughtably a superior leader. She went through many tough times throughout her life and came out positively. Just like may other leaders today. Oprah also had a intriguing life. That is why I picker her for a twentieth century leader. Undoughtably Oprah is a superior leader because she went through many tough times and she never gave up. When she was young, her relatives sexually abused her. She didnt give up though and to me thats what I think makes her a good leader. Even something as tragic as that, she did not give up. Instead she moved and excelled in school. She made good grades and scholarships to the University of Tennessee. She is a extremely intelligent person with a caring heart. Any leader has to be smart. Oprah is also a caring person but she can maintain her leadership qualities even while she cares. Oprah is also a good leader because when she was sexually abused she turned the negative energy into positive energy by excelling in school. Oprah also set goals and achieved them. Oprah lost a lot of weight when she first started her TV show. She lost 90 pounds and achieved her goal. All leaders have to set goals and do what ever it takes to achieve them. Oprah also has had a lot of respect from all of the wonderful things she has done. All leader need respect from their followers. If you dont have respect people wont listen and follow the leader. Oprah has also helped many people throughout her lifetime. Oprah has been a talk show host, actress, and TV movie producer. So you know shes willing to try knew things and is capable of learning new things. A leader is always learning new things and is taking risks by learning the jobs. If you get a new job you have the risk of not learning the job right and getting fired. But Oprah learned her jobs and excelled in them, just like she did in school. Oprah is also a extremely good public speaker. Even ...

You Earn What You Ask For

You Earn What You Ask For I was chatting with a reader not long ago, and she brought up the age-old complaint about entities asking writers (or any sort of artist) to present for freefor the exposure. Her words were these: our culture places little or no value on volunteer work, despite the lip-service given it. So, the covert message is that if you the performer, artist, service provider, etc. do not value your services enough to put a price on them, the client wont either. The lesser the value you place on yourself, the greater the disrespect you receive from your client. Ive written entire editorials on that subject, but she hit the nail on the head. People not only get what they pay for, but earn what they ask for. A few people will get their feathers ruffled. Not me or I know a lot of exceptions to that, but the grand majority of people see free as something of lesser value; otherwise, it wouldnt be cheap. And if something costs more, there usually has to be a reason. Ive turned down conferences and appearances for not compensating well enough. The initial gut reaction is to worry that youve declined an opportunity. We tend to be a group of creators that jumps at the chance to be read/seen anywhere, but that small feeling of panic about In the long run, you deem what you are worth, and the more you give it away, the lower your stock value.

Response to Inquiry Regarding Legal Action Against Daley Motor Company Essay

Response to Inquiry Regarding Legal Action Against Daley Motor Company - Essay Example Firstly, with respect to business contracts there is the issue of offer and acceptance. What this means is that each and every binding legal contract must have these two phases. First an offer must be made and then an agreement/acceptance can be reached. Additionally, only those things which are specifically offered can be accepted. Accordingly, in the written contract if something is not specified it is not offered and in no way is it to be considered part of the written contract. It is during this phase of a business/legal contract that offers and counter offers are discussed and resolved. As a result, special attention should be noted as to the terms and conditions of the agreement as these terms and conditions are the actual mechanisms by which the agreement is to be carried out. Not until this phase is complete, read, agreed upon, and signed can the contract be considered legally binding (and then only if the other terms and conditions affecting the legality of a contract are me t). Final acceptance of the contract can be given orally, in writing or discerned through verifiable actions (the oral contract you believe you had with Daley Motor Company will be discussed at further length in this letter). Intention of legal consequences refers to the fact that both parties entering into the legally binding contract are aware that their acceptance means that they will be held legally responsible for executing the terms and conditions of the contract. It is this juncture that proved vitally important to the case in question as you did not take your legal obligation to the terms and conditions of sale seriously by carefully reading before signing the document provided to you. Although it is not always able to be determined whether a person has agreed on a particular item, English law upholds that when a person manifests their consent to a bargain, they are considered beholden to it (Tiersma and Solan 2012). For purposes of your particular instance, any disagreement with the language implied in the written document prepared by Daley Motor Company should necessarily have been discussed, amended, or redacted with the seller prior to any further agreement and prior to signature that denotes agreement and consent with the terms and conditions therein. Consideration is the final stage of legally binding contracts. With respect to the terms and conditions of the contract, consideration refers to the fact that one party will fulfil his/her responsibility by doing something in return for the promise stipulated in the contract. In essence, consideration is what one party gives to another party as an agreed sum for the other’s cooperation. Most of the time this â€Å"consideration† is in the form of money; however, it can be anything of value. (Pollock 1921). It should also be noted that for issues relating to fairness are not considered in a court of law. For instance if you severely overplayed for a given good or service after entering a binding legal contract to do so; this burden solely rests on the signatories and is not deemed fraud unless coercion or some other illegal instrument was in use to complete the deal. From the details of the issue you have provided us, it is clear that Arthur Daley Motor Company has at the very least treated you unfairly and at the very worst deliberately swindled you. Firstly, there is the issue of the oral

Africa In Perspective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Africa In Perspective - Essay Example Trevor-Roper stated that Africa had nothing that could be taught or learned in so far as history is concerned, but seemed to prophesy about Africa’s Future. Although George Hegel and Hugh Trevor-Roper viewed Africa with contempt and negative connotations, they did not understand the Africa’s story and its potential for the future. It is notable that Africa in the traditional days did not have much to offer in terms of development or movements. Not much was known about the continent to the extent that it was not considered as a force in the global sphere. Civilizations had not knocked Arica’s doors. While civilization swept most parts of Europe and the nations of America’s, Africa missed the opportunity to become part of the world system. Accessibility into the continent of Africa was not a possible issue, as the terrain and navigation methods at that time could not allow penetration into the heart of the continent. Consequently, global powers did not think that Africa deserved to be included in the civilization process to they extent that the continent was left to hang in the dark with few possibilities.To this extent, Hegel and Trevor-roper were right in noting that nothing could be understood, learned or recorded about history and that remains a fact. It is important to note that Hegel and Trevor did not take into consideration the challenges that faced the ‘dark’ continent in the traditional days.In the traditional days, Africa had a governance system that was manifested by the clan system.  

My childhood memory that still occurs today Essay Example for Free

My childhood memory that still occurs today Essay I don’t know why I’m surprised about this as it’s happened before and still is today. Looking back at it now has made me a lot more confident and I feel a lot stronger than I was before. This all happened 10 years back from now how I had an operation on my eyes that didn’t go to plan and left me with bad results to my eyes as one was squint and the other was just normal. Knowing I had to go to school with these effects was terrifying, nerve-racking, scary, and I had this gut feeling that I wasn’t going to be good enough for anyone. Every day that went by was emotional and upsetting to not only me but to my mum too as she knew what it felt like to be bullied. Each day I came home from school with tears streaming down my face, she knew something was wrong and as I was so young she had no idea what to do but to comfort me and sometimes it wasn’t always like that she would sometimes and sit there and cry because she wanted to help and also the fact she hated seeing her children cry/ be upset. From day one I was given a nickname which was named 4- eyed Katherine and now growing up it has came to me that my new nickname is cock-eyed Katherine. As it’s been so long ago that this all started I can actually still remember an incident that happened due to the disaffect in my eyes. The school bell rang for home time, I was so happy to be g oing home. I remember running to the door with my big heavy schoolbag that was twice the size of me. I waved all the teachers goodbye and opened the door to see a few guys I knew that were in my class standing just outside to the left of the school doorI hated each and every one of them that were there. One of the boys within the group said hello so I just ignored him and walked on by then I heard someone shout from the group â€Å"oi, Katherine come here†, I didn’t want to go as I just wanted to get home so I ignored them again was halfway down the playground. After having been ignored twice they decided to come over to me, they all circled around me. Next thing I knew I was thrown to the ground; they all spat on me and called me 4-eyes. I seen that they had on roller-blades, they started kicking me with themit hurt me like mad. By this time I was crying and screaming for help. I could hear someone from the far end of the playground shouting â€Å"leave her alone†, the boy s all ran off and I was left in pain, I couldn’t feel parts of my body. One of the teachers came over and helped me up also took me back to the school to get me cleaned up. My mum was called  and was told about what had happened to me .thinking about it gives me butterflies in my tummy. Reflecting back 10 years from now is a huge difference but more to the fact that all the bullying hasn’t stopped as it still proceeds today, just like it has for the past 10 years. As I grew up I learnt that not everyone was perfect; everyone has their own flaws and opinions. Looking back from 10 years to now has mostly not affected me as much as it did before but in reality it’s hard to hold back feelings. As it still happens today I don’t really bother about it as basically I’m used to it but sometimes it can go abit too far and it will eventually get to me. There are times that someone has said something either about me or to me and I just simply walk away as people have their own opinions. I don’t understand why they bully me because if it had happened to them they wouldn’t like it. I still have the nickname of cock-eyed Katherine today, I had to wear glasses ever since I had the operation so it would help my eyes get better but every tim e I took them off everyone just stared at me and laughed and I knew from then that I was going to get bullied and be an easy target. Ever since I had theses glasses everyone kept asking me to take them off just so they could see my eyes and laugh at me. My friends stick by me today and they have for a long time, they have seen me at my worst when all this gets to me and they understand how I’m feeling as they also have been through that stage but not as long as I have though. There is an incident that happened in 1st year where it was in P.E and we were doing swimming, as I can’t really see without my glasses I had to wear them. I jumped into the water and when I rose to the top I noticed I wasn’t wearing my glasses, they must have fallen off and sunk to the bottom of the pool. I turned around to find everyone in my class staring at me and laughing. One pupil had to swim to the bottom and collect them and from that day in high school I was bullied as everyone knew the me under the glasses. I mean there are also times when I am walking in the corridor of school and people just walk by me and say â€Å"look there’s cock-eyed Katherine†, I just don’t listen and just keep on walking. In my own opinion I feel like everyone should be treated equally and fairly, we all came in this world the same way so we should all go out that way too. I would like for all the bullying to stop as I’m fed up of it and it just isnâ€℠¢t fair on me that I’m being picked on when they wouldn’t like it if I were doing it to them.

Impact of an Educator on Sustaining and Enhancing a Child’s Learning an

Educators have long been accountable for their student’s ongoing learning and development. The way in which an educator views both their students and their profession, will determine the way they perceive their pedagogical role in sustaining children’s learning and development. Given Australia’s focus on standardised testing in recent years, educators and society have become consumed by these results rather focusing on the process and personal needs of children’s development (Lingard 2010). In exploring the child-centred, constructive approach evident throughout Finnish educational frameworks, Australian educators can adapt these facilitative methods within their own pedagogy to ensure that the child, and society, equally benefit from the child’s overall development throughout their early childhood years. Education as a vocation is ever changing and evolving. There are no cases where a situation surrounding the learning or development of a child can be viewed in black and white or any teaching methods or techniques that can be immediately regarded as ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, rather educators need to be prepared â€Å"for different learners within the framework of research-based learning† (Tryggvason 2009). Given the vocation’s fluidity, world-wide value and perceived necessity, many educators in the field come from a variety of backgrounds. Whether they vary by cultural, socioeconomic, or personal philosophies the factors that contribute to an individual’s perspective surrounding the field are endless (Tryggvason 2009; Dockett & Fleer 1998). This idea has been represented in a variety of ways across the academic field, whether they are specific, such as an educator’s attitude towards a particular subject based on the way in which they w ... ... Tryggvason, M. T. (2009). Why is Finnish teacher education successful? Some goals Finnish teacher educators have for their teaching, European Journal of Teacher Education, 32(4), 369-382, DOI: 10.1080/02619760903242491. Van Hoorn, J. L, Nourot, P. M., Scales, B. R. & Alward, K. R. (2011). Play at the Centre of the Curriculum, (5th ed.), Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, USA: the President and Fellows of Harvard College. Woodrow, C. (1999). Revisiting images of the child in early childhood education: Reflections and considerations, Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 24(4), 7-12. Woodrow, C. & Press, F. (2007). (Re)Positioning the Child in the Policy/Politics of Early Childhood, Educational Philosophy and Theory, 39(3), DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00328.x

Compensation: Employment and Internal Alignment

1. Define compensation and discuss the variety of returns people received from their work? (8 marks) Compensation refers to all forms of financial return and tangible services and benefits employees receive as part of employment relationship. Other than that compensation means something that counterbalance, offsets, or makes up for something else. However in the different language the compensation itself have richness of meaning, which combines entitlement, returns and reward.Compensations are related with the employee and the employer performances, it means by employee performance of their works and the employer as the organization performance. Compensation need to be consider in all aspect especially in internal or external factor such as technology advancement, human capital, economic, government and others because it may affect the organizations itself. Other than that, the benefit of compensation toward the employees is it may increase the employee morale and it’s also a way to attract and retain employees.The variety of returns people receive from their work that are categorized as total compensation and relational returns. The total compensations are transactional and the relational returns are psychological. Total compensation can be divided into two. First is cash compensation that means by they include pay directly as cash such as base, merit/cost of living, short term incentives and long term incentives. That normally employer pays for the work performed based on their result in performance appraisal.Second is indirectly as benefits such as income protection, work/life balance, and allowance. That is non-monetary benefits for the employees, for example all female employees are entitled for maternity allowance, transportations allowance, EPF or SOCSO and others. The relational returns are involved learning opportunities, status, challenging work and so on. By means the compensation is intangible. For example for recognition and status, as human being normally people are loved to be respect by the others because that is a human nature.The increase of status means position of the employee may improve their morale and individual self-esteem. It also may influence other people to compete and improve their performance and gain the competitive advantages. 2. Pay system are designed to achieve certain objective, list and briefly describes the three compensation objective? (10 marks) i. Efficiency ? Performance ? Quality ? Customer and stockholder ? Cost ii. Fairness iii. Compliance iv. Ethics †¢ EfficiencyCan be stated more specifically first in improving performance, increasing quality, delighting customers and stakeholder and second is controlling labor cost. It also means by the pay of the employees are equivalent with the employee performance. When the employees are satisfied with their payment it will improve the quality of work indirectly will also increase the product quality. When the employees feels satisfied with their payment it will make the organization stable and it will help for the customer and stockholder loyalty (good image of organization).The organization also my control labor cost because they are able to attract and retain their employees. †¢ Fairness It is call as a fair treatment for all of the employees by recognizing both employees contributions for example higher pay for greater performance, experience, or training and employees needs for example fair wage as fair procedures. The procedural fairness is refer to the process used to make pay decisions. It suggested the way a pay decision is made be equally as importance to employees as the result of decisions.For example, the CEO position are received the higher pay in organization it is because the decision that been made may give a big impact towards the organization rather than the decision that had been made by the operator that may give a little impact only in department. †¢ Compliance As a pay objective means c onforming to federal and state compensation law and regulations. If laws change, pay system may need to change, too to ensure continued compliance. As compliance go global, they must comply with the laws of all the countries in which they operates.It means by, even they are same position but in different country, the employees cannot have the same pay. It is because every country has own currency. So, it is not suitable to use the same compensation system in different country, it also may cause dissatisfaction among employees. 3. Discuss four perspective of compensation? (12marks) i. Society Some people see pay as measure of justice. For example the comparison of earning between men and women highlights what many consider inequities in pay decisions. Benefits given as part of total compensation package may also be seen as a reflection of equity or justice in society.The society also may see that involved job losses or job gain in a country over time. It means by the compensation may increase the employee morale (job gain) or decrease employee morale (job losses) because of dissatisfaction. Some consumers know that pay increase often lead to price increases. It’s because the employer need to pay the employees by using their profits. ii. Stockholders They are also interested in how employees are paid. Some believe that using stock to pay employees creates sense of ownership that will improve performance, which will, in turn, increase stockholder wealth.It is because, the employee will feel more responsible as they feels that the organization as their own. iii. Managers For manager, compensation influences their success in two ways. First it is major expense. Competitive pressures, both global and local, force manager to consider the affordability of their compensation decision. Other than that, managers also used it to influences employees behavior and improve the organization performance because they have an authority to evaluate the employees’ pe rformance that relate to the compensations and benefits. v. Employees The pay individuals receive in return for the work they perform is usually the major source of their financial security. Employees may see compensation as a return in an exchange between their employer and themselves, as an entitlement for being an employee of the company, or as a reward for a job well done. The employees see pay as the important things in their live because it determines the standard of living and the money that they need to plan for their future. 4. Elaborates four steps in developing a compensation strategy? 12 marks) i. Assets Total Compensation Implications Think about any organizations past, present, and its future. What factors in its business environment have contributed the company’s success? Which factor that become more or less likely important as company looks ahead? The company classifies the factors as business strategy and competitive dynamic, HR strategy, culture/values, soc ial and political context, employee/union needs and others HR system. Which is the employer itself must have clear understanding about their business. i. Map a Total Compensation Strategy Mapping is often used in marketing to clarify and communicate a products identity. A strategic map offers a picture of company compensation strategy. It can also clarify the message that the company is trying to deliver with its compensation system. The comparison with competitors using the diagram based on element on pay model such as, objective, internal alignment, external competitiveness, employee contributions and management. iii. Implement strategyInvolve implementing strategy through the design and execution of compensation system. Where implement the system that had been created. iv. Reassess Reassess and realign, closes the loop and recognize that the strategy must be changing to fit the changing conditions. Thus the periodic reassess is needs to continuously learn, adapt, and improve. The result from using the system need to be assessed against objectives we are trying to achieve. 5. Define an internal alignment and briefly discuss any four factors which shape internal alignment? (10 marks)Internal alignment can be define as internal equity, refers to the pay relationships among different jobs/ skills/ competencies within a single organization. It also means by how to structure the position in organizations. For example, if a person holding degree, he will be measure under competencies, which is he has a good qualification than others. Factors which shape internal alignment :- i. Government policies, laws and regulations. The equal employment legislations forbids pay system that discriminate on the basis of gender, race, religion or national origin.The equal pay for equal work with considers under equal if it is equal skills, equal effort and equal responsibility and is performed under equal working conditions. ii. Organization strategy It may influence the internal alignment. The belief is that pay structure that are not aligned with organization strategy may become obstacles to the organization success. iii. Organization Human Capital Human capitals are based on education, experience, knowledge, abilities and skills require performing the work. It is a major influence in internal alignment.The greater the values added by the skills and experience the more pay those skills will command. iv. Overall HR policies The organization other human resource policies also may influence internal pay structures. Most organizations tie money to promotions to induce the employees to apply for higher-level position. If organization has more levels, it can offer more promotions, but there may be smaller pay differences between levels. The belief is that more frequent promotions (even without significant pay increase) offer sense of career progress to employees. [pic]

International Culture

RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 129 Chapter 5 I NTERNATIONAL CULTURE Contents Objectives of the chapter Introduction 131 Places and people differ. The Japanese tend to be very polite, the Australians characteristically blunt. Red means â€Å"danger† or â€Å"stop† to the British, but in Turkey it signifies death and in China, good fortune. In France getting into a grande ecole tends to guarantee good job prospects whereas in Saudi Arabia the wealth and status of your family is far more important. What is culture? 131 The importance of culture in different business contexts 133National stereotypes and key dimensions of culture 136 Cross-cultural management 144 Culture embodied in national institutions 151  ¦ Active Learning Case Culture clash at Pharmacia and Upjohn 130  ¦ International Business Strategy in Action McDonald’s 135 Danone and Parmalat—going international, staying local 149  ¦ Real Cases Do not throw your meishi! 154 Sport can be local and global: Manchester United 155 Patterns of global diversity and the implications of these differences have been studied from a range of perspectives, by sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and political scientists.Here we are concerned with how cultural diversity and related differences in the behavior, norms, and expectations of particular groups of employees, managers, colleagues, or customers affect management decision making and corporate organizations. After an introduction to the kinds of business contexts in which cultural differences do matter, this chapter will describe some typologies of national cultural differences and discuss the implications of these for international managers. The specific objectives of this chapter are to: 1 Define culture and explain the factors that underlie cultural differences. Show where and why cultural differences matter to international managers. 3 Explain a number of frameworks that help identify important cultural differences. 4 Examine how firms can anticipate and cope with cultural differences. RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 130 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Active Learning Case Culture clash at Pharmacia and Upjohn Despite being part of the same advanced, industrialized world, Kalamazoo (Michigan, United States), Stockholm (Sweden), and Milan (Italy) are worlds apart in many important ways. Senior managers leading the merger between two pharmaceutical firms, Upjohn Company of he United States and Pharmacia AB of Sweden (with operations in Italy), came to realize how significant these differences were after the merger took place in 1995. Swedes take off most of the month of July for their annual vacation, Italians take off most of August. Not knowing this, US executives scheduled meetings in the summer only to have to cancel many because their European counterparts were at the beach. As the more dominant US firm began to impose its way of doing things on the newly acquired Euro pean organizations, international relationships became increasingly strained. Neither the Swedes nor the Italians were happy with mpositions such as the drug and alcohol testing policy brought in by Upjohn, or the office smoking ban. These clashed with local ways of doing things and the more informal work environment that these cultures prefer. Although Upjohn later relaxed many of these work rules, allowing some local practices and preferences to prevail, ill-feeling and a degree of resistance had already developed among European colleagues. The additional bureaucracy and the command-andcontrol style imposed by the Americans created more significant problems for the 34,000 employees and managers in Pharmacia and Upjohn Company. The Swedes ere used to an open, team-based style of management where responsibilities are devolved; managers are trusted and not strictly monitored or closely managed. Swedish executives also tend to build up a consensus behind big decisions, â€Å"getting everyone in the same boat† (alla aer i baten) rather than handing orders down the hierarchy. As a traditional US multinational, however, Upjohn was more used to strong leadership and a centralized command-andcontrol structure. Its CEO, Dr. John Zabriskie, quickly created a strict reporting system, tight budget control, and frequent staffing updates, which clashed with the Swedish rganization style. Swedish managers would leave meetings disgruntled, having been overruled by US executives keen to push their vision of the merged company. The Swedes’ own ways of doing things had already clashed with the Italian style of management, following the takeover of Farmitalia (part of Montedison) by Pharmacia in 1993. Italians are used to a distinctive division between workers (and their strong unions) and managers. Their 130 steeper hierarchies contrast the more egalitarian Swedes. Italians also place a high value on families and will leave ork to tend to sick relatives or help wi th childcare, which the Swedes frown upon. The addition of the Americans from Upjohn to this mix created further cultural confusion. Communication problems, beyond the obvious language differences, became a real barrier to honest dialogue. â€Å"You go there thinking you’re going to streamline the place,† said American Mark H. Corrigan, Pharmacia and Upjohn Vice President for Clinical Development, â€Å"and you leave just having added five pounds from some wonderful meals. † These differences, many of them small but important at the local level, quickly began to have an impact on the verall performance of the merged company. In the months and years following the merger unforeseen inefficiencies and added costs began to undermine the potential synergies of bringing together two such companies in the first place. At one level the problems amounted to things like canceled meetings, new organization demands (such as monthly report writing), and a general decline in staff morale. There were also unexpected difficulties integrating the IT systems across the various parts of the merged organization. These and other changes added an estimated $200 million to the predicted costs of the estructuring, taking the total cost to $800 million. Even more seriously, for a pharmaceutical company heavily reliant on its new drugs pipeline to survive, delayed product launches and the loss of key staff (including the head of R&D at Pharmacia) had a longer-term impact. â€Å"There was probably an under-appreciation †¦ of these cultural differences,† says Art Atkinson, former Vice President for Clinical Research and Development. Particular problems resulted from the restructuring of the firm’s global R&D structure. Prior to the merger Upjohn owned well-known names such as Rogaine andMotrin and had annual sales of around $3. 5 billion, but had a weak new product pipeline and slow sales growth compared to its larger competitors. Similar-sized Pha rmacia had a more promising pipeline but weak distribution and sales in the US market, the world’s largest. These amounted to a strong rationale for the merger. Together they could challenge the financial power and the larger R&D programs of their competitors. However, integrating and refocusing the various parts of the new R&D structure became a major problem. Rather than place the R&D headquarters in the United States, Sweden, or Milan, a ecision was made to establish a new and neutral Londonbased center for the R&D function. This simply added a RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 131 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE layer of management and a more complex matrix reporting structure, which further alienated key R&D personnel. In 1997, after the stock price of the merged corporation had fallen significantly, CEO John Zabriskie resigned. Swede Jan Ekberg, the former head of Pharmacia, took over temporarily and began to rebuild aspects of the merged organization. After acquiring a major part of Monsanto in 2000, Pharmacia and Upjohn became Pharmacia, which was hen itself acquired by the US giant Pfizer in April 2003. This made Pfizer, according to its own Annual Report, the â€Å"number one pharmaceutical company in every region of the World. † 11 All this proves is that going global is hard work. Not all of these problems could have been foreseen, but a real lack of awareness of cultural differences did lead to many of the organization difficulties and people problems with a real impact on the bottom line. Websites: www. accenture. com/xdoc/en/ideas/outlook/1. 2000/maa2. pdf; www. pfizer. com; www. pfizer. com/are/investors_reports/annual_2003/ review/index. htm.Sources: R. Frank and T. M. Burton, â€Å"Pharmacia & Upjohn Faces Culture Clash; Europeans Chafe Under US Rules,† Wall Street Journal, February 4, 1997; R. J. Thomas, â€Å"Irreconcilable Differences,† Accenture Outlook, vol. 1, 2000; and Pfizer, Annual Report, 2003. What kind s of cultural differences matter when organizations from different countries merge? 2 How well do the characteristics described in the case match the respective, stereotypical national cultures of these countries? 3 What could senior managers have done before and after the merger to alleviate some of the problems that resulted from culture clash? Explain why one organization might want to impose some of its ways of doing things on another, such as an acquired firm or subsidiary. INTRODUCTION The number of workers employed by foreign-owned companies has grown significantly over the past 20 years as a result of the expanding activities of foreign affiliates of MNEs around the world. For many people, both employers and employees, this has brought home the realities of globalization. An estimated 73 million people globally (including 24 million in China) now work for foreign companies, nearly three times the number in 1990.Companies such as Motorola, General Motors, British Petroleum, a nd General Electric are among the largest private-sector employers in economies such as Malaysia and Singapore. 1 This growing multicultural workforce, part of the increasingly global patterns of exchange and interaction discussed earlier in this book, makes it more and more important to understand how people’s preferences, beliefs, and values differ. Understanding international cultural differences allows us to be aware of and adapt to the differences that matter for managers. WHAT IS CULTURE? SocializationThe process of enculturation, or the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture Culture can be defined as â€Å"the sum total of the beliefs, rules, techniques, institutions, and artifacts that characterize human populations†2 or â€Å"the collective programming of the mind. †3 Sociologists generally talk about the socialization process, referring to the influence of parents, friends, education, and the interaction with other members of a pa rticular society as the basis for one’s culture. These influences result in learned patterns of behavior common to members of a given society.As you can see, definitions of culture vary according to the focus of interest, the unit of analysis, and the disciplinary approach (psychology, anthropology, sociology, geography, etc. ). 131 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 132 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Table 5. 1 World population percentages in terms of home region, language, and religion Home region Asia Africa Europe Latin America Former Soviet bloc North America Australia and New Zealand % 58. 4 12. 4 9. 5 8. 4 5. 5 5. 2 0. 6 Language % Mandarin 14. 4 Hindi 6. 0 English 5. 6 Spanish 5. 6 Bengali 3. 4 Russian 2. 8 Portuguese 2. 6 Japanese 2. 0German 1. 6 Korean 1. 3 French 1. 3 Other 54. 4 (approx. 200) Religion Christianity, including: Catholics Protestants Orthodox Islam Hinduism Non-religious Buddhism Chinese traditional Primal–indigenous Other % 33 20 9 4 22 15 14 6 4 3 3 Sources: www. census. gov; www. adherents. com. Corporate culture The shared values, traditions, customs, philosophy, and policies of a corporation; also, the professional atmosphere that grows from this and affects behavior and performance 132 This is significant in that studies of cultural differences adopt a specific definition and set of measurable criteria, which are always debatable.Research into culture and its impact in business and management studies is highly contentious and should not just be taken at face value, including the studies described below. There is a strong consensus, however, that key elements of culture include language, religion, values, attitudes, customs, and norms of a group or society. Table 5. 1 shows how the world’s population is divided according to geography, language, and religion. Language is perhaps the most important key to understanding culture in general and the specific values, beliefs, attitudes, and opini ons of a particular individual or group.English is widely accepted as the language of business; many global institutions and companies have adopted English as their official language. For many firms, such as Toyota, NEC, Hitachi, and IBM Japan, English-speaking ability is a prerequisite for promotion. 4 However, any assumption that speaking the same language removes cultural differences is dangerous—it normally just hides them. Moreover, a reliance on English by British and American managers, and a lack of other language skills, can weaken their ability to empathize with and adapt to other cultures.Religion, linked to both regional characteristics and language, also influences business culture through a set of shared core values. Protestants hold strong beliefs about the value of delayed gratification, saving, and investment. The sociologist Max Weber, writing in 1904, saw this Protestant work ethic as the â€Å"spirit of capitalism† during the Industrial Revolution. 5 Rather than spending, consuming, and enjoying life now, their religious beliefs prompted the Protestants to look to longer-term rewards (including those in the after-life).There are parallels with the Confucian and Shinto work ethics, which also view spiritual rewards as tied to hard work and commitment to the fruits of industry. Contrasting this, a more stoic attitude among some African populations partly explains their acceptance of the ways things are, because it is the â€Å"will of God† (shauri ya Mungu). At the most general level culture can refer simply to the lifestyle and behavior of a given group of people, so corporate culture is a term used to characterize how the managers and employees of particular companies tend to behave.But the term is also used by human resource managers and senior management in their attempts to proactively shape the kind of behavior (innovative, open, dynamic, etc. ) they hope to nurture in their organizations. Promoting a distinctive cor porate culture is also expected to enhance the sense of community and shared identity that underpins effective organizations. RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 133 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN DIFFERENT BUSINESS CONTEXTS Cross-cultural management issues arise in a range of business contexts.Within individual firms, for example, managers from a foreign parent company need to understand that local employees from the host country may require different organization structures and HRM procedures. In cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As), realizing the expected synergies very often depends on establishing structures and procedures that encompass both cultures in a balanced way. Cross-border joint ventures, alliances, or buyer–supplier relationships between two or more firms also require a cultural compromise.Finally, for firms to sell successfully to foreign customers requires culturally sensitive adaptations to products, services, marketing, and advertising. Figure 5. 1 outlines, at the most general level, links between business contexts and particular characteristics of individuals or groups that are influenced by social and cultural norms of a particular region. At the face-to-face level in meetings the language and behavior of different peoples vary and their mutual understanding of each other’s culture will influence the effectiveness and efficiency of communication between them.This influences how well multicultural workplaces operate at all levels, from strategy setting at the senior level to plant-floor operations. Firms also tend to have different organizational and decision-making practices depending on where they have evolved and which cultures and subcultures they encompass. For firms to build successful alliances and partnerships, or for M&A activities to succeed at the company-to-company level, there needs to be an understanding of the organizational Figure 5. 1 Cross-cultural business contexts 133 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 134 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESSEthnocentrism The belief that one’s own way of doing things is superior to that of others. differences between them. This covers practically every element of corporate organizations from decision-making structures and systems and management–labor relationships to individual employees’ attitudes toward their work and their employer. Finally, culture influences the behavior and preferences of clients and customers. To sell successfully in a foreign market, a manager needs to adapt his or her product or service to meet the different needs of that particular group of customers.Any alteration in advertising, marketing, product or service features, after-sales support, technical back-up, documentation, etc. , will be partly guided by cultural differences. Failure to do this ends in the kinds of marketing mistakes and communication blunders that become marketing folklore. For examp le, Ford’s low-cost truck was initially marketed as the Feira to Spanish-speaking people, but this means â€Å"ugly old woman† in Spanish. The Ford Comet, a high-end car, was sold as the Caliente in Mexico, which is local slang for â€Å"prostitute. Unsurprisingly neither model did well in these markets. This reinforces the above point about the importance of language, but also demonstrates how some of the largest and most experienced companies do not appear to do the most basic cultural due diligence (their homework! ) when launching products and services in foreign markets. The chapter on marketing strategy in this book examines these kinds of issues more closely. Across all of the business contexts in Figure 5. 1 ignorance of cultural differences represents a common stumbling block for international managers.Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s own way of doing things is superior to that of others, can also be a major barrier to good international management . The challenge lies in recognizing differences, combining the advantages that stem from different styles and approaches, adjusting and adapting to succeed with different people, in different partnerships, and in different markets. ? Active learning check Review your answer to Active Learning Case question 1 and make any changes you like. Then compare your answer to the one below. 1 What kinds of cultural differences matter when organizations from different countries merge?The definition of culture itself gives some indicators of the kinds of differences that matter. Organizations from different countries will have developed different beliefs, values, and patterns of behavior based on their underlying national culture. A wide range of differences could be important, including attitudes toward work and workplace practices, management–labor relations, the decision-making hierarchy, and division of responsibilities. Cross-border M&A often also requires changes to the marketing a nd branding of products and services as sales are expanded into new markets.Differences in the language, values, and preferences of customers in different countries also need to be taken into account. Culture has always been important Cultural convergence The growing similarity between national cultures, including the beliefs, values, aspirations, and the preferences of consumers, partly driven by global brands, media, and common global icons 134 Despite the various patterns and processes of globalization, cultural differences still remain important. Even with greater common access, via various media and the Internet, to the same brands, rock icons, and sports stars, differences remain.Terms like cultural convergence or, simply, Americanization (the homogenization of global consumer preferences through the ubiquity of McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, and Ford) overstate the similarities between groups of people around the world. (See the case International Business Strategy in Action: McDonald’s. ) RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 135 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE International Business Strategy in Action McDonald’s When Jose Bove, a self-proclaimed leader of France’s antiglobalization movement, was sentenced for vandalizing a McDonald’s restaurant in 1999, he claimed to have the backing of the French people.That might have been an overstatement, but 40,000 French people were there to show their support. It was not only the French, however; in the 1990s McDonald’s restaurants were vandalized in about 50 countries. At issue is the worldwide perception that McDonald’s represents a particular friendly Ronald-McDonald-type of US imperialism. Traditional lifestyles, critics say, are being eroded by McDonald’s marketing practices, its value chain system, its fast-food concept, and the unhealthy food itself. Yet, McDonald’s bends over backwards to blend into local cultures. The company advertises itself to its critics as a lobal company owned and run by local people. Indeed, the franchise system makes it so that McDonald’s Japan is run by the Japanese and Israel’s McDonald’s restaurants are run by Israelis. Local business owners choose their menu’s offerings to fit their culture, find alternative suppliers, and create suitable marketing for their culture. An American in Saudi Arabia might seat single men with families at a McDonald’s opening, but a Saudi Arabian owner would know that this is unacceptable and the restaurant will be designed to accommodate the culture. In the land of Jose Bove, Asterix, a French comic-strip haracter who stands for individuality and ironically symbolizes local resistance to imperial forces, replaced the goofy Ronald McDonald in the company’s marketing in the early 2000s. In 1999, French McDonald’s went the extra mile to prove how local it was by printing advertisements making fun of US eating habits. In one ad , a large American cowboy complains that McDonald’s France does not import American beef to â€Å"guarantee maximum hygienic conditions. † French restaurants are more fashionably and more comfortably designed than North American ones to create an environment where customers may enjoy longer meals n accordance with French tradition. If they want, customers can order a beer from the menu. In India, where local tastes are very different from those in the United States, the company crafted an entirely different menu that does not use beef or pork due to the mostly vegetarian population. The Indian Big Mac is made of lamb. In Israel, the locally owned McDonald’s purchases over 80 percent of its ingredients from local producers, including 100 percent kosher hamburger meat, potatoes, lettuce, buns, and milkshake mix. There are no cheeseburgers in Israel’s McDonald’s because dairy products cannot be eaten together with meat.On the other hand, McDonald†™s does bring its own culture to its foreign operations. In China, where children’s birthdays are not traditionally celebrated, a successful McDonald’s marketing strategy encouraged birthday parties at their establishments. Not a bad deal for children, but still a cultural effect from a foreign multinational. More mundane things, such as combo meals, are popularized through McDonald’s expansion. By promoting its carbonated beverages in India, the firm is unsettling the country’s tea culture. The company’s presence creates a cultural exchange, not a one-sided cultural takeover.Beyond reactionary behavior against McDonald’s cultural â€Å"impositions,† McDonald’s has had to suffer simply for being born in the United States. Just hours after the United States began bombing Afghanistan in 2001 McDonald’s restaurants were vandalized in cities in Pakistan and Indonesia and Muslim clerics asked for the boycott of US products. For activists and cultural protectors, the most frustrating thing is that their calls go unheeded. Owners of McDonald’s franchises continuously remind customers that they too are locals, that their employees are locals, and that their suppliers are mainly local.In Brazil, some anti-war protestors on their way home will stop at a McDonald’s for a bite to eat. Some of McDonald’s major troubles, however, are in its most established markets in the United States, Canada, and the UK. Russian and Chinese go-getters might think that a meal in McDonald’s puts them in a class above, but in its two major markets of North America and Europe, where the firm derives over two-thirds of all revenue, the food is considered unhealthy. Indeed, both Canada and the UK considered imposing a tax on fatty foods on the grounds that it was damaging to people’s health and it osts the health-care system a substantial amount. The tax is unlikely to be imposed because of a str ong backlash from poverty groups who argue that this tax would place an uneven burden on those who depend on cheap food for their everyday survival. In the United States, the firm is being sued over claims that it misled parents about the nutritional value of its products, leading their children to become obese and unhealthy. McDonald’s in the UK reacted by eliminating supersized options from the menu. A set of healthier options has now been introduced inEurope and North America as the company fends off critics in some of its friendliest markets. Sources: David Barboza, â€Å"When Golden Arches Are Too Red, White and Blue,† New York Times, October 14, 2001; Tony Karon, â€Å"Adieu, Ronald McDonald,† Time. com, January 24, 2002; Simon Romero, â€Å"War and Abuse Do Little to Harm US Brands,† New York Times, May 9, 2004. 135 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 136 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Cultures vary and these variations lead to r eal and significant differences in the ways that companies operate and people work.Moreover, because of globalization more and more firms are coming head to head with the added complexity of doing business globally, which stems from the huge amount of variety in the world that still exists (and arguably will always exist). Before moving on to examine some typologies of global cultures, here is a word of warning. Much of this section will describe how various kinds of individual and group behavior can be linked to specific cultural groups and associate these cultural dispositions with different business styles and company structures.Acting on the basis of cultural stereotypes is highly sensitive and can be problematic. For example, at the simplest level a banker may be able to prove empirically that Pakistanis are more successful than Jamaicans at starting and running small businesses around the world. Using this insight as the basis for discriminating against Jamaicans wanting bank loans for business start-ups is not only unethical, but in most countries falls foul of race discrimination laws. NATIONAL STEREOTYPES AND KEY DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE Culture at two levelsThere are traditionally two different approaches to looking at culture:  ¦ Psychic distance The psychic or psychological level, which focuses on the internalized norms, attitudes, and behavior of individuals from a particular culture (psychic distance is a measure of differences between groups). A measure of the similarity or difference between two cultures; also commonly  ¦ The institutional level, which looks at national (or group) culture embodied in defined as the measurable institutions (government, education, and economic institutions as well as in business distance between the home rganizations). market and a foreign market resulting from the perception In this chapter we will mainly discuss the first, culture as shared psychology, with a brief of cultural and business differences referenc e to national institutional differences at the end. People who are born in, or grew up in, the same country tend to share similar cultural characteristics. Nordstrom and Valhne examined a sample of Swedish firms to understand the effects of psychic distance on market-entry strategies and costs. They ranked 20 particular countries according to a range of national characteristics that contribute to psychic distance and found, as you might expect, that Denmark is closest to Sweden (1/20), the UK comes in at 6/20, Portugal at 15/20, Japan 16/20, Brazil 17/20 and Australia 20/20. Nationality and culture tend to coincide, although nations encompass a wide variety of institutions, religions, beliefs, and patterns of behavior, and distinctive subcultures can always be found within individual countries. The only way to make sense of this wide diversity is to characterize distinct cultural groups through simplified national stereotypes.Many studies have attempted to create these stereotypes b y mapping and comparing the shared characteristics of managers and employees in different countries. 7 Researchers then examine the effects of key differences on business behavior, organization, structure, and ultimately the performance of companies from different countries. The following describes the milestone studies of this kind in the management field. Hofstede’s four dimensions of culture Geert Hofstede is a Dutch psychologist who conducted one of the earliest and best-known cultural studies in management, on IBM’s operations in 70 countries around the world. 136 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 137 Individualism index CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE Power distance index Figure 5. 2 Hofstede’s power distance against individualism for 20 countries Source: Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories, Journal of International Business Studies, Fall, p. 92. Copyright  © Geert Hofstede. Getting answers to 32 stateme nts from over 116,000 questionnaires, he mapped key cultural characteristics of these countries according to four value dimensions: Power distance A cultural dimension that measures the degree to hich less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept the fact that power is not distributed equally Uncertainty avoidance The extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created institutions and beliefs for minimizing or avoiding those uncertainties Individualism The tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only Masculinity The degree to which the dominant values of a society are success, money, and material things 1 Power distance is the extent to which a culture accepts that power in organizations is distributed unequally.High power distance equates with steep organizational hierarchies, with more autocratic leadership and less employee participation in decision making (see Figure 5. 2 for examples). 2 Uncertainty av oidance is the degree to which members of a society feel uncomfortable with risk and uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance (Japan, Argentina, France) will be reflected in the high priority placed on rituals, routines, and procedures in organizations and society in general. Countries with low uncertainty avoidance (Denmark, UK, India, US) tend to emphasize flexibility and informality rather than bureaucracy. Individualism is the extent to which people are supposed to take care of themselves and be emotionally independent from others (see Figure 5. 2 for examples). 4 Masculinity is the value attributed to achievement, assertiveness, and material success (Japan, Mexico, Germany, UK) as opposed to the stereotypical feminine values of relationships, modesty, caring, and the quality of life (Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark), according to Hofstede. Figure 5. 2 illustrates some of Hofstede’s findings using two of the most useful dimensions, power distance against the degree of individ ualism/collectivism.It reflects some general stereotypes of the countries included, with clear grouping of Australia, UK and US as highly individualistic and less hierarchical (small power distance) cultures against Mexico, Thailand, and Panama at the other extreme. We will elaborate on these definitions and their practical interpretation throughout this chapter. Among his most important contributions, Hofstede provided strong evidence for the significance of national culture over professional role, gender, or race, as a determinant of variation in employees’ attitudes, values, and behaviors, accounting for 50 percent of the 137 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 :52 PM Page 138 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS differences his study observed. However, his studies have come in for significant criticism, despite widespread adoption of the four-dimensional framework. Three common criticisms are: (1) that the dimensions developed from data collected between 1968 and 1973 wer e relevant only for that particular period; (2) that corporate cultural and other influences from this one-organization (IBM) study created significant bias; (3) that the sole use of attitude-survey questionnaires was not a valid basis for the resulting values and dimensions his study concluded with. Although Hofstede has continued to write on culture, organizations, and management10 it is useful to look more deeply into the work of another well-known Dutch culture guru. Trompenaars’ seven dimensions of culture Universalism The uniform application of rules and procedures, regardless of situation, context, or individuals involved Particularism Judging a situation and adjusting rules and procedures according to the specific situation or individuals involved Collectivism The tendency of people to belong to groups who look after each other in xchange for loyalty Neutral A preference for unemotional, objective analysis of a situation or a decision and for limited displays of emoti ons and feelings in the workplace Emotional An acceptance of emotion and subjectivity as the bases for some decision making and a preference for explicit displays of emotions and feelings in the workplace Specific A tendency to limit workplace relationships and obligations, including relative status and hierarchical position, to the workplace Diffuse A tendency for workplace relationships and obligations, including relative tatus and hierarchical position, to extend into social situations and activities outside of work 138 Fons Trompenaars built on Hofstede’s work by expanding the framework for stereotyping and comparing different national cultures and by focusing more on the management implications of cultural differences. Using initial research involving 15,000 employees in 50 countries, Trompenaars explored the â€Å"cultural extremes and the incomprehension that can arise when doing business across cultures,† even when people are working for the same company. 1 Tro mpenaars arrived at seven distinctive dimensions of culture and used the questionnaire responses in his study to map a wide variety of countries along a continuum from one extreme to the other within each dimension. The key to understanding this mapping approach is to identify where each country or culture is positioned relative to others on one or more of these dimensions. Relative positioning gives insights into the kinds of conflicts, misunderstandings, and organizational and management problems that are likely to arise when individuals, groups, or firms from these countries interact in any of the ways described above. Universalism versus particularism. In universalistic cultures rules and regulations are applied in all situations, regardless of particular conditions or circumstances. The example used by Trompenaars refers to a salesman who does not fulfill his monthly sales quota because he was looking after his sick son. Should he be penalized according to standard company regu lations or should he be excused because of the particular circumstances? According to Trompenaars’ findings, Switzerland, Canada, and the United States are among the most universalist. Australia and the UK are also toward this end of the scale.Germany is closer to the center, as is France, but the latter sits on the particularist side of the scale. Korea, Russia, and China are the most particularist of countries. (Note that some of the countries studied by Hofstede, like the strongly particularist Yugoslavia, no longer exist. ) 2 Individualism versus collectivism. This dimension, clearly building on Hofstede, centers on whether individual rights and values are dominant or subordinate to those of the collective society. The most individualist countries are Canada, the United States, Switzerland, and the UK.Among the most collectivist are Japan, Egypt, and India (and Nepal and Kuwait). 3 Neutral versus emotional. This reflects how much emotions are displayed in the workplace. M ore importantly it indicates whether emotional or subjective (rather than objective) forms of assessment are thought to be the basis for good decision making in organizations. Some organizations emphasize reports, data, and analytical decision making by managers, whereas others feel that opinions, intuition, and gut feelings are credible or valid criteria.Predictably the most emotional countries include Italy and France and the least emotional groups (in the workplace at least) are the Japanese, Germans, Swiss, Chinese, and Indonesians. 4 Specific versus diffuse. Do work relationships (such as the hierarchical relationship between a senior manager and a subordinate) exist just in the workplace (are they RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 139 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE specific), or do they extend into the social context outside the workplace (diffuse)? Here a telling example is whether an employee is willing to help paint a senior manager’s house over a weekend.Clearly A ustralian bosses are likely to get a characteristically blunt answer to this request! China, Japan, India, and Singapore display highly diffuse relationships, Australia and the Netherlands the most specific. Achievement oriented Where status is earned rather than a right; recruitment and promotion opportunities tend to be more dependent on performance, as in a meritocracy Ascription oriented Where status is more of a right than earned; recruitment and promotion opportunities tend to be more dependent on seniority, ethnicity, gender, religion, or birth SequentialCultures that view time in a sequential or linear fashion; order comes from separating activities and commitments Synchronic Cultures that view events in parallel over time; order comes from coordinating multiple activities and commitments 5 Achievement versus ascription. This dimension refers to one’s status within organizations, contrasting those cultures where status, credibility, authority, and ultimately power ten d to be based on merit (achieved) against those where class, gender, education, or age tend to be the defining characteristics (status is ascribed).Countries where status tends to be ascribed include Egypt, Turkey, and Argentina (and slightly less so, Russia, Japan, and France), and those where it is achieved include Norway, Sweden, and predictably the United States, Australia, Canada, and the UK. 6 Attitudes toward time. Sequential (time as a sequence of events) versus synchronic (several events juggled at the same time) views of time tend to relate to punctuality for meetings and deadlines. Swedes and other northern European cultures tend to be punctual and plan according to specific timetables.Many southern European, Latin American, and Arabic cultures see punctuality and chronological precision as far less important. They also tend to naturally cope with a range of issues simultaneously, rather than one by one. 7 Attitudes toward the environment. This dimension reflects the emph asis a particular culture places on people’s relationship with nature and the natural environment. On the one hand some cultures emphasize control and subjugation of environmental forces, whereas others emphasize the need to work with nature, in harmony with the environment.Clearly religious and philosophical differences around the world influence differences within this dimension. Trompenaars’ seven dimensions have been used in a variety of ways to gain insights into the kinds of problems that might arise in the contexts (face to face, company to company, and company to customer) outlined in Figure 5. 1. In general they indicate the organizational characteristics we can expect from firms based in particular countries or dominated by certain nationalities. They are also used to measure changes in cultural values and behavior over time.Research shows that in both Japan and China, for example, achievement orientation is on the increase alongside some elements of individu alism. 12 The Japanese are moving away from a reliance on collectivism in the form of the state, large firms, and group associations and placing more value on personal responsibility and individual performance. In China there is a shift in companies toward performance-related rewards and individual initiative, built on the changing views of the growing urban elite.But there are also wider concerns regarding the social costs as well as the benefits of self-interest. The GLOBE project’s nine dimensions of culture More recent research has built on the Hofstede and Trompenaars research. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project began in 1992 and continues today. It has involved 150 researchers collecting data on cultural values and management and leadership attributes from 18,000 managers across 62 countries in the telecommunications, food, and banking industries. 3 In the same way as Hofstede and Trompenaars before them, the researchers plac e countries along a standard 1 to 7 scale. The GLOBE project, however, ends up with nine key cultural dimensions: 1 Assertiveness. The United States, Austria, Germany, and Greece are high; Sweden, Japan, and New Zealand are low. 2 Future orientation. A propensity for planning, investing, delayed gratification: Singapore, Switzerland, and the Netherlands are high; Russia, Argentina, and Italy are low. 139 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 4:16 PM Page 140 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS Gender differentiation. The degree to which gender role differences are maximized: South Korea, Egypt, India, and the China are high; Hungary, Poland, and Denmark are low. 4 Uncertainty avoidance. A reliance on societal norms and procedures to improve predictability, a preference for order, structure, and formality: Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany are high; Russia, Bolivia, and Greece are low. 5 Power distance. Russia, Thailand, and Spain are high; Denmark, the Netherlands, and Israel are low. 6 Institutional collectivism (individualism vs. ollectivism). Promoting active participation in social institutions: Sweden, South Korea, and Japan are high; Greece, Argentina, and Italy are low. 7 In-group/family collectivism. A pride in small-group membership, family, close friends, etc. : Iran, India, and China are high; Denmark, Sweden, and New Zealand are low. 8 Performance orientation (much like achievement orientation). Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States are high; Russia, Argentina, and Italy are low. Humane orientation Cultures that emphasize helping others, charity, and eople’s wider social obligations 9. Humane orientation. An emphasis on fairness, altruism, and generosity: Ireland, Malaysia, and Egypt are high; Germany, Spain, France, Singapore, and Brazil are low. As you can see, many of these dimensions match those of Hofstede and Trompenaars, and the overall GLOBE framework is very much an extension of their approach. The GLOBE researchers have examine d the HRM implications of these cultural differences for practicing managers and looked at ways to avoid the pitfalls of ignorance and insensitivity. 4 A similar long-running study by the CRANET network has focused on European cultural differences and reports similar findings. 15 As with the other cultural mapping studies by Hofstede and Trompenaars, GLOBE has faced some critical appraisal, which helps us understand the strengths and weaknesses of its concluding framework. A recent set of debates has usefully raised some methodological issues associated with these kinds of studies, and provides interesting points of contention we should be aware of, rather than blindly accepting the above kind of research. 6 Applying the national culture frameworks Different styles of communication and interaction result from the cultural differences listed above. These can lead to workplace misunderstandings, poor interpersonal and intergroup relationships, inefficiency, and higher costs. Three exa mples provide some insights into how we can apply the above typologies. US managers, according to all of the above studies, are highly assertive and performance oriented relative to managers from other parts of the world (they come around the midpoint on all the other dimensions).Their interaction style is characteristically direct and explicit. They tend to use facts, figures, and logic to link specific steps to measurable outcomes, and this is the main focus of workplace interaction. Greeks and Russians are less individualistic, less performance oriented, and show lower levels of uncertainty avoidance (are less driven by procedures) than the Americans. When Russian and Greek managers, employees, customers, suppliers, or public-sector officials interact with US counterparts, they may well find their approach too direct and results focused.For them communication is likely to be more about mutual learning and an exploration of relevant issues than an explicit agreement about specific expectations and end results. Similarly, the Swedes may find the US style too aggressive and unfriendly, working against the relationship-building process that for them is a major objective of workplace interaction. The Koreans and Japanese have highly gender-differentiated societies with males tending to dominate decision making and leading most face-to-face communication. The agenda 140 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PMPage 141 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE Ethnocentric A belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group; the dominance of the homecountry culture in decision making, human resource management, and overall corporate culture in a multinational firm for discussion is likely set by males, and traditional language forms differ according to whether a man is addressing a woman or an older person talking to a younger person, and vice versa. Gender- (and age-)related roles, responsibilities, and behaviors are therefore deeply embedded in language and customs. 7 Polan d and Denmark lie at the other end of the continuum on the gender-differentiation dimension. Perhaps even more than other Western managers, their lack of awareness of this cultural difference runs the risk of both embarrassing female employees and offending and alienating senior Japanese male managers. This kind of clash can make negotiations and interaction of all kinds between these groups that much more difficult. Certain kinds of HRM techniques are inappropriate for organizations that show high power distance ratings.Companies and management consultancies in the UK, the United States, and northern European countries have developed fairly participative management systems to improve productivity, based on their characteristically low power distance and flat organizational hierarchies. Techniques such as 360-degree feedback systems for developing management–employee relationships are not likely to work, however, in Mexican, Panamanian, Thai, or Russian organizations, which h ave high power distance and steep hierarchies.Subordinates are uncomfortable being asked to evaluate senior managers, and managers would not see subordinates as qualified to comment on their performance. More than this, to employees in some countries this kind of consultation can give the impression that senior managers do not know what they are doing! The employees may lose faith in senior management’s ability and leave! None of the above examples means that international managers should (or ever could) entirely change their behavior to suit local values and practices.Like many of the challenges facing managers, cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural effectiveness come from striking a balance between one’s own norms, values, and principles and those of the â€Å"foreigner. † The lesson for multinational firms is that ethnocentric corporate cultures and completely standardized HR systems do not work. The key challenge is to adapt to get the best from local diff erences. ? Active learning check Review your answer to Active Learning Case question 2 and make any changes you like. Then compare your answer to the one below. 2How well do the characteristics described in the case match the respective, stereotypical national cultures of these countries? According to the above frameworks they match reasonably well. The US culture is characterized as individualistic, achievement/performance oriented, and assertive. Most of these traits clash with the â€Å"feminine† (in Hofstede’s characterization) values of relationships, modesty, caring, and the quality of life emphasized by the Swedes. Hofstede finds US managers less hierarchical than most cultures, which is not indicated in the Pharmacia–Upjohn case. However, as Figure 5. shows, both countries have a low power distance and high individualism rating, relative to other countries, but the United States has slightly higher power distance (steeper management hierarchy) than Swede n. Sweden also has a relatively high uncertainty avoidance ranking, preferring order, structure, and formality, which does not stand out in the case study. Swedes are also high on institutional collectivism but low on family or small-group collectivism. The Italians are the opposite. Unlike the Americans, the Italians are not at all oriented toward achievement (Trompenaars) or performance (GLOBE).They are also more emotional than the Swedes and Americans according to Hofstede and have a relatively low future orientation (GLOBE). 141 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 142 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS â€Å"The way we do things here†: the implications of cultural differences for organizations and managers Mapping out a variety of national cultural typologies using the various dimensions of culture described above gives us some insights into the kinds of differences that exist among different groups of managers, employees, and organizations.Two key question s about the role of the individual in a firm and the role of a firm in a society from Trompenaars’ study give us a starting point to explore the management implications of cultural differences. The responses in Figure 5. 3 reflect the degree of support for the particular proposition A or B for each of these questions. Americans clearly display what has been termed (originally by the sociologist Max Weber) a mechanistic and functional view of the firm as an organization (A) and a shareholderdriven, profit-oriented view of this organization in society (although more than half the US vote in Figure 5. was for option B). The Japanese tend to have a more organic view of the firm, emphasizing the importance of social networks and the obligation of the firm to a wider constituency of stakeholders (although this is a characteristic of traditional Japan that has been strongly tested in the recent recessionary environment). A wide range of factors within organizations are influenced di rectly or indirectly by the cultural predispositions of managers and employees. We know from the above studies and a wide range of other research that these factors include: The general relationship between employees and the organization: their roles and responsibilities, obligations, and loyalties and the link this has with life outside the workplace. Figure 5. 3 Excerpts from Trompenaars’ cultural attitudes survey Source: Hampden-Turner, C. and Trompenaars, F. The Seven Cultures of Capitalism: Value Systems for Creating Wealth in the United States, Britain, Japan, Germany, France, Sweden and the Netherlands (New York: Doubleday, 1993). 142 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 143 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE  ¦Hierarchy, power and authority, and the accepted routes to attaining these, including factors that underpin status and credibility in different societies and organizations.  ¦ The role of formal rules and regulations versus the informal communication, personal ne tworks, and hidden â€Å"rules of the game. †  ¦ The accepted basis for decision making, including rationale, scientific, mechanistic, and objective versus subjective, tacit, rule of thumb, etc.  ¦ The degree to which employees act and are treated as individuals or groups and the role of interpersonal relationships.  ¦ Motivation and rewards systems. Interaction and communication mechanisms. Work attitudes and the appropriate management of work attitudes have a significant influence on productivity and innovativeness in a company. Managers and employees who are motivated by their core social values to work hard and continually strive to improve their company’s products and services and the processes by which they are produced are clearly a source of competitive advantage. It is interesting to note how social norms may drive a strong work ethic despite individual dissatisfaction with workload or job responsibilities.This has been shown in several companies between US and Japanese factory workers where the Japanese are found to be more loyal and aligned with company objectives but far less satisfied individually. 18 Table 5. 2 compares interview responses from sample workforces in seven countries. The resulting ranking of what it is that employees value most from their jobs shows that â€Å"interesting work† is what tends to engage most people, beyond everything else. Table 5. 2 Average and intra-country ranking of work goals: a seven-nation comparison Work goals Belgium UK Germany Israel Japan Netherlands United StatesOpportunity to learn 5. 8a 7b 5. 55 8 4. 97 9 5. 83 5 6. 26 7 5. 38 9 6. 16 5 Interpersonal relations 6. 34 5 6. 33 4 6. 43 4 6. 67 2 6. 39 6 7. 19 3 6. 08 7 Opportunity for promotion 4. 49 10 4. 27 11 4. 48 10 5. 29 8 3. 33 11 3. 31 11 5. 08 10 Convenient work hours 4. 71 9 6. 11 5 5. 71 6 5. 53 7 5. 46 8 5. 59 8 5. 25 9 Variety 5. 96 6 5. 62 7 5. 71 6 4. 89 11 5. 05 9 6. 86 4 6. 10 6 Interesting work 8. 25 1 8. 02 1 7. 26 3 6. 75 1 6. 38 2 7. 59 2 7. 41 1 Job security 6. 80 3 7. 12 3 7. 57 2 5. 22 10 6. 71 4 5. 68 7 6. 30 3 Match between the people and the work 5. 77 8 5. 63 6 6. 09 5 5. 61 6 7. 83 1 6. 17 6. 19 4 Pay 7. 13 2 7. 80 2 7. 73 1 6. 60 3 6. 56 5 5. 27 5 6. 82 2 Working conditions 4. 19 11 4. 87 9 4. 39 11 5. 28 9 4. 18 10 5. 03 10 4. 84 11 Autonomy 6. 56 4 4. 69 10 5. 66 8 6. 00 4 6. 89 3 7. 61 1 5. 79 8 a First row shows average rank on a scale of 1 to 10. Second row shows ranking of work goals within each country, with a rank of 1 being most important and 11 being least important. b Source: Adapted from Itzhak Harpaz, â€Å"The Importance of Work Goals: An International Perspective,† Journal of International Business Studies, vol . 21, no. 1 (1990), p. 81. 143 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 144PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Three key areas capture many of the factors covered by the above typologies and cultural stereotypes, wh ere cultural differences can make a significant difference at the company-tocompany and face-to-face levels. These are organization, leadership, and communication (see Figure 5. 4). Organization Organization styles range from organic, informal, or people oriented to systematic or mechanistic, formal, or task oriented, in keeping with some common organizational dimensions described by sociologists throughout history (such as Max Weber and Emile Durkheim).Organizations that operate very much around personal relationships and social networks contrast those that are much more functional and logical. In fact different cultures and different firms display elements of both these characteristics, but the balance varies considerably and can create tensions when groups of people or firms from different ends of the spectrum interact or try to cooperate. As an aid to predicting differences among individuals, groups, or firms, and understanding the significance of these variations, relative diff erences among countries, organizations, and groups of people are important, rather than any absolute scores.For example, family companies are characteristically directive, individual oriented but organic. Multinational firms are usually more autocratic and mechanistic. Consulting and professional services firms are often mechanistic and emphasize individual performance and rewards but may also be fairly team oriented. Entrepreneurial new ventures will usually be organic, unsystematic, and group oriented. Leadership Leadership styles range from individual oriented, directive, autocratic, top down, or authoritarian to group oriented, participative, democratic, bottom up, or egalitarian.Again, cultural groups and corporations often encompass both kinds of leadership but tend to reflect one dominant style. Individual managers from cultures that score high on the power distance or assertiveness dimensions are likely to be viewed by those from other cultures as autocratic and directive bu t will tend to view others as indecisive and too compromising. They will not want to spend too much time discussing issues to achieve a consensus. If they also reflect an organic Figure 5. 4 Management dimensions of culture 144 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 :52 PM Page 145 CHAPTER 5 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE or informal (low uncertainty avoidance) culture, this will result in an instinctive or unsystematic decision-making and implementation style, and they might be viewed as an unpredictable autocrat. This contrasts the combination of high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance, which results in a more directive and mechanistic style. Such leaders prefer established formal routines and a command-and-control bureaucracy, while other managers are likely to see this as over-regulated and inflexible.The Pharmacia and Upjohn case demonstrates a range of these styles and the problems that result from the imposition of a new style of organization and leadership within a corporate merger. Commun ication Culture clash When two cultural groups (national or corporate) meet, interact, or work together and differences in their values, beliefs, rules of behavior, or styles of communication create misunderstandings, antagonism, or other problems Clearly, at the face-to-face level language differences can be the most prominent barrier to communication and therefore to cooperation and coordination.English speakers tend to have an advantage in many situations since English has emerged as the main language of business globally. However, this has led to complacency among some indigenous English speakers, notably the British and the North Americans. First, less effort is often made to learn other languages and their associated cultures, which normally limits a manager’s understanding of foreign colleagues, workers, or customers. Second, the assumption is often made that once the language barrier is broken cultural differences are also removed, whereas these may emain, causing mis communication and misinterpretation. As for much of this chapter on culture, preparation and awareness are the best starting points for minimizing differences that can create problems. It is through efficient communication that two parties steer toward an understanding— a mutually agreed basis for doing business. The signs and signals on this route to an understanding are strongly influenced by culture. Different groups have different ways of displaying approval or of showing frustration in negotiations and different ideas of what constitutes a final agreement.The Japanese do not really have an equivalent word for the English â€Å"no† and indicate disapproval in a range of non-verbal ways. The Japanese word hai does mean â€Å"yes† but it often means â€Å"yes, I understand what you are saying† not â€Å"yes, I agree with what you are saying. † Germans place a lot of emphasis on written communications and documented evidence rather than verbal int eraction, compared to the Spanish and Italians to whom verbal interaction and agreement is recognized as binding in some contexts.The Americans prefer legal contracts and have armies of lawyers to make agreements highly specified. Other, more organic business cultures tend to work toward a relationship in which trust and understanding replace the need for legally binding contracts. Again, awareness through preparation and anticipation of differences is the best starting point for avoiding culture clash. The corporate response How have MNEs responded to the challenge of managing across cultural boundaries?What kinds of organization structures, HRM procedures, and corporate cultures have been developed to cope with the enormous differences among people and to unify this diversity toward a common purpose? At a very general level good transnational firms develop an awareness and appreciation of cultural differences among their managers and employees. They also take steps to encourage ad aptation of personal behavior or organizational practices, or products and services, to suit the changing mix of cultures within the firm, in subsidiaries and in key markets. Training programs, including a range of activities at the induction stage, when new ecruits join a firm or existing personnel take up a role in a new country, are a standard way for firms to do these things. Job rotation, with a focus on developing international managers with personal experience in a variety of different countries, is also practiced by a number of firms. It is 145 RUGM_C05. QXD 8/18/08 1:52 PM Page 146 PART TWO THE ENVIRONMENT OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS normally very difficult to assess such practices using any form of cost–benefit analysis. The costs are usually easily identifiable, but the benefits are very often intangible.For many exp